Answer:
810 stocks
Explanation:
M and S can repurchase $480,000 / $25 = 19,200 stocks
the number of shares that you need to sell to offset the firm's leverage = total amount of stocks that you own x (total stocks repurchased / total stocks outstanding before buyback) = 2,700 x (19,200 / 64,000) = 2,700 x 0.3 = 810 stocks
Since your goal is to offset the firm's new leverage, you have to sell a proportional amount of your stocks compared to the whole repurchase transaction.
Assume that you plan to buy a share of XYZ stock today and to hold it for 2 years. Your expectations are that you will not receive a dividend at the end of Year 1, but you will receive a dividend of $9.25 at the end of Year 2. In addition, you expect to sell the stock for $150 at the end of Year 2. If your expected rate of return is 16 percent, how much should you be willing to pay for this stock today?
Answer:
Price to be paid today = $118.35
Explanation:
The price of a share can be calculated using the dividend valuation model
According to this model the value of share is equal to the sum of the present values of its future cash dividends discounted at the required rate of return.
The model can applied as follows:
PV of dividend = D×(1+r) ^(-n)
D- dividend , r - required rate , n- number of year
D- 9.25, r - 16%, n = 2
PV of dividend = 9.25 × (1.16)^(-2)= 6.9
PV of disposal value
PV of dividend = F × (1+r) ^(-n)
D- disposal value , r - required rate , n- number of year
PV of disposal value = 150 × (1.16)^(-2)= 111.47
Price to be paid today
Total present value = 6.9 + 111.47 = 118.35
Price to be paid today = $118.35
Among its assets are the following: (1) the showroom building, a separate building used to service customer cars, and various parking lots, (2) a nearby acre of land not currently used by the auto dealership, (3) new and used cars and trucks for sale to customers, and (4) a car that is used to provide rides to customers who prefer to wait at home while their cars are serviced. The assets that are classified as plant assets on the company's balance sheet include
Answer:
(1) the showroom building, a separate building used to service customer cars, and various parking lots
(4) a car that is used to provide rides to customers who prefer to wait at home while their cars are serviced.
Explanation:
Plant Assets are defined as assets in the business that are expected to provide the benefit of helping a company accrue revenue and have will have a useful life of more than a year.
The showroom building, a separate building used to service customer cars, and various parking lots are all places where the company performs business with the showroom showcasing cars for sale and the separate building being used for servicing cars which is another revenue stream.
The car that is used to provide rides to customers who prefer to wait at home while their cars are serviced is also a plant asset as it provides a value added service to customers who will be more likely to have repeat business with the company as a result thereby generating more revenue.
Depreciation is the accountant's estimate of the cost of ______ used in the production process matched with the benefits produced from owning it.
Answer:
Fixed assets and equipment
Explanation:
Depreciation is the accountant's estimate of the cost of fixed assets and equipment used in the production process matched with the benefits produced from owning it.
It is the decrease in the value of assets and the method used to reallocate the cost of asset over its useful life span.
Assets can be categorized as :
1. Current
2. Fixed
3. Tangible
4. Intangible assets.
In accounting, there are several standard methods of computing depreciation expense:
1. Fixed percentage
2. Straight line
3. Declining balance methods.
Rocky Mountain Tire Center sells 20,000 go-cart tires per year. The ordering cost for each order is $40, and the holding cost is 20% of the purchase price of the tires per year. The purchase price is $20 per tire if fewer than 500 tires are ordered, $18 per tire if 500 or more—but fewer than 1,000—tires are ordered, and $17 per tire if 1,000 or more tires are ordered. a) How many tires should Rocky Mountain order each time it places an order? b) What is the total cost of this policy?
Answer:
a) How many tires should Rocky Mountain order each time it places an order?
667 tiresb) What is the total cost of this policy?
total costs (including merchandise purchased) = $362,400total costs (not including merchandise purchased) = $2,400Explanation:
we must find the EOQ for the three possible prices:
when price per tire is $17:
EOQ = √(2SD) / H
S = cost per order = $40
D = annual demand = 20,000
H = 20% x $17 = $3.40
EOQ = √[(2 x $40 x 20,000) / $3.40] = 685.99 = 686 tires
when price per tire is $18:
EOQ = √(2SD) / H
S = cost per order = $40
D = annual demand = 20,000
H = 20% x $18 = $3.60
EOQ = √[(2 x $40 x 20,000) / $3.60] = 666.67 = 667 tires
when price per tire is $20:
EOQ = √(2SD) / H
S = cost per order = $40
D = annual demand = 20,000
H = 20% x $20 = $4
EOQ = √[(2 x $40 x 20,000) / $4] = 632.46 = 632 tires
since all options are over 500 units but lower than 1,000, we must take the option where each tire costs $18
total cost:
20,000 x $18 = $360,000
(20,000 / 667) x $40 = $1,199.40
holding costs = average inventory = 667 / 2 = 333.5 x $3.60 = $1,200.60
total costs (including merchandise purchased) = $362,400
Attestation standards apply when a CPA is engaged to issue a practitioner’s report on A preparation service. The subject matter of a compilation. An examination after performing agreed-upon procedures. A review of an assertion about subject matter that is the responsibility of another party.
Answer:
A review of an assertion about the subject matter that is the responsibility of another party
Explanation:
An attest engagement is defined as the independent review of a subject matter by a professional other than the auditor by conducting a specific procedure and he is expected to issue a report of his findings on the reliability of the subject matter.
The three stages of attestation services are compilation ,review and audit.
Attestation engagement is governed by the Statements on standard for attestation engagement (SSAE)
Joan, who has a PhD in economics, has been employed as an agent by Gibraltar Securities for the past 15 years. Missing academic life, she resigns from the broker-dealer and accepts a position as an economics professor at a state university. Which, if any party, is required to notify the state securities Administrator of this change
Answer:
both the agent in question as well as the former broker/dealer are required to notify the Administrator promptly.
Explanation:
In the specific scenario that is being described both the agent in question as well as the former broker/dealer are required to notify the Administrator promptly. This is mainly due to the fact that the license that an agent possesses expires as soon as they cease to be employed by the broker/dealer and/or issuer for whom they were previously licensed. Therefore this information needs to be presented immediately to the securities administrator and her license needs to be revoked.
A company completes construction of a $400 million offshore oil platform and places it into service on January 1. State law requires that the platform be dismantled and removed at the end of its useful life, which is estimated to be 10 years. The company estimates that the cost of dismantling the platform will be $20 million. The discounted value of the liability is $9 million using the company's credit-adjusted, risk-free rate. The company has already capitalized the $400 million construction cost of the platform. What amounts should the company record as liability and expense when the asset is placed into service
Answer:
b. Liability, $9,000,000; expense, $0.
Explanation:
An asset retirement obligation (ARO) refers to an obligation with respect to the acquisition , construction, development, etc. The liability should be recognized the liability at the present value that should be expected to be paid for settling the obligations
Here the $9,000,000 million represents the liability
Also the journal entry is
Asset Dr
To liability
(Being the asset placed is recorded)
There is no expense should be recorded in the income statement
Cherries on Top, a national ice cream shop, is struggling financially to keep up with the bigger chains. The top executives have decided to close all the stores in the Northeast and Texas, as that will give them an additional one million dollars to put into marketing. This executive is practicing the
Answer:
utilitarian approach.
Explanation:
Cherries on Top is a national ice cream shop and is struggling financially to keep up with the bigger chains. The top executives have decided to close all the stores in the Northeast and Texas, as that will give them an additional one million dollars to put into marketing. This executive is practicing the utilitarian approach.
Utilitarianism can be defined as an ethical moral theory that offers anyone a relatively direct method for enhancing choices and making decisions about the right course of action for any particular situation.
Basically, the utilitarian approach analyzes and measure an action in terms of its outcome or consequences; by determining the net benefits and costs to all stakeholders of an organization individually.
The main purpose or focus of the utilitarian approach is to achieve the best possible outcome or results for the overall success of the business while creating the least amount of harm, loss, damage or suffering.
Hence, the executive of Cherries on Top is practicing the utilitarian approach.
PIOs should A. request additional assistance through the National Public Information Support Network. B. seek media release approval from the Communication Unit Leader. C. compile a go kit to allow for lengthy deployments to a long-term incident. D. report to the Finance/Admin Section Chief when arriving at an incident.
Answer:
B. seek media release approval from the Communication Unit Leader.
Explanation:
A PIO (public information officer) is responsible for managing communications with the media, public and other agencies regarding information on incidents. Before media releases the PIO is to first obtain approval from the incident commander as well as limits on the information to the released. PIO are also responsible for interviews and briefings regarding briefings, manage media and public inquiries, monitor information being reported so as to ensure accuracy
Conversion costs include ________. A. direct labor and manufacturing overhead costs B. direct material and direct labor costs C. product and period costs D. direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead costs
Answer:
A. direct labor and manufacturing overhead costs.
Explanation:
In Financial accounting, conversion costs comprises of all the costs associated with the conversion of raw materials into finished goods or products. These costs are usually calculated by the addition of direct labor and manufacturing overhead.
Hence, conversion costs include direct labor and manufacturing overhead costs.
Question 9
1 pts
a
D
ESPE
The cost of a van is $16,000 with a residual value of
$2,000. The van has an estimated useful life of 5 years.
The mount of depreciation expense using straight-line
each year is:
D
O $933
O $373
O $737
O none of the above
Answer:
The correct answer is:
None of the above (d)
Explanation:
Depreciation is the reduction in the fair value of an asset over time.
cost of van = $16,000
residual value = $2,000
useful life = 5 years
depreciation using straight-line allocation is allocating the depreciation cost equally over the useful life of the asset.
[tex]Annual\ depreciation\ expenses\ = \frac{(cost\ of\ asset\ -\ salvage\ value}{useful\ life\ of\ asset} \\\\\\Annual\ depreciation\ expenses\ = \frac{16,000 - 2,000}{5} \\= \frac{14,000}{5} \\Annual\ depreciation\ expenses\ = \$2,800[/tex]
Answer:
none of the above
Explanation:
depreciation expense per year using straight line method = (purchase cost - residual value) / useful life = ($16,000 - $2,000) / 5 years = $14,000 / 5 = $2,800 per year
The straight line method for calculating depreciation expense is the simplest method that we can use, since the depreciation expense is the same for every year. Unlike double balance, sum of digits or any other kind of deprecation expense method which varies from year to year.
Kate's Diner offers one breakfast item, a breakfast special. The market price for this meal is $5. At her profit-maximizing level of output, Kate's average variable cost is $4 per meal. Her average total cost is $6 per meal. Since the market is perfectly competitive, Kate should ________.
Answer:
keep producing in the short run but exit the industry or go out of business in the long run
Explanation:
A perfect competition is characterised by many buyers and sellers of homogeneous goods and services. Market prices are set by the forces of demand and supply. There are no barriers to entry or exit of firms into the industry.
In the long run, firms earn zero economic profit. If in the short run firms are earning economic profit, in the long run firms would enter into the industry. This would drive economic profit to zero.
Also, if in the short run, firms are earning economic loss, in the long run, firms would exit the industry until economic profit falls to zero.
A firm should shut down in the short run if price is less than average variable cost. But since the diner's price is greater than average variable cost, it should continue production.
A firm should exit the industry in the long run if price is less than average total cost. the diner's price is less than average total cost, so it should shut down in the long run
The teams working at Dixon Corp. are allowed to give their suggestions to the top management regarding the workflow and new product designs. The teams are, however, not authorized to make any management decisions and also do not have a say in the kind of projects the company accepts. These teams are an example of a(n) .
Answer:
employee involvement team
Explanation:
Employee involvement refers to the direct participation of staff by application of their ideas, expertise, and efforts, towards solving problems and in decision making to help their organizations fulfil its mission or meet its objectives. Although the team members are allowed to give suggestions, they are not authorized to make decisions in the managerial capacity.
Some advantages of using employee involvement are:
improved decision making by the organizations
improved attitudes regarding work
increased employee productivity
increased job satisfaction, because the employees feel like they are being heard.
Nations will be able to produce a larger joint output and realize mutual gains when each specializes in the production of those items for which it is a low-opportunity cost producer and trades for those things that it could produce only at a high cost. This statement best describes the
Answer:
law of comparative advantage.
Explanation:
Nations will be able to produce a larger joint output and realize mutual gains when each specializes in the production of those items for which it is a low-opportunity cost producer and trades for those things that it could produce only at a high cost. This statement best describes the law of comparative advantage.
Comparative advantage can be defined as ability of a country or business entity to produce goods and services at a lower opportunity cost than others such as their trade partners. Hence, the most important benefit of the comparative advantage is that, it gives a country or business entity the ability to sell their finished goods and services at a lower price in comparison with its close competitors and consequently, resulting in a stronger sales margins.
Assume that the interest rate on borrowings in Japan is 3 percent while the interest rate on bank deposits in a U.S. bank is 5 percent. Laura, an active currency trader, borrows in Japanese yen, converts the money into U.S. dollars and deposits it in a U.S. bank. Laura is engaging in
Answer:
"Carry Trade", is the right answer.
Explanation:
Laura is engaged in "Carry Trade" because the carry trade refers to the process to borrow from the country where the interest rate is lower and deposit the borrowed money in other countries in which the person earns more interest. Therefore, the process for borrowings and deposits from low and high-interest rates respectively is called the carry trade.
A store that advertises a buy-one-get-one-free sale is
Answer:
sales promotions
Explanation:
Sales promotions are the steps taken to increase the purchase of the products by adding an incentive to the customers. Buy-one-get-one-free is one of the sales promotions. Here two products are sold in the cost of one. The customer is provided with the benefit of getting two products by giving the amount of one. It is the promotions in which quantity plays a crucial role.
Answer:
sales-oriented
Explanation:
I just got it right.
The Cooke family has worked for various General Motors's divisions for over four decades. Bennett Cooke works at the Cadillac division. Rondella Cooke works at the Buick division. Their son Tyrone works at the Corvette plant, and their daughter Niome works at the Saturn plant. The Cooke family could tell you that GM is departmentalized by:
Answer:
Product
Explanation:
Since in the question it is mentioned that Cooke family worked in the various division like Bennett Cooke works at the Cadillac division and like this other its family working in different divisions
So here it is focused on a single product that could be sold by different divisions
Therefore it is departmentalized by product
Correct Inc. is a publicly traded firm with 100 million diluted shares outstanding trading at $37.50 per share. The company has $1 billion of debt outstanding with a cost of debt at 6.5% at a marginal tax rate of 40%. The company has $100 million of cash on its balance sheet. What is the enterprise value of Correct Inc.
Answer:
The enterprise value of Correct Inc is $4,650 M
Explanation:
In this question, we are interested in calculating the enterprise value of Correct Inc
To do this, we use the mathematical formula below;
Enterprise Value = market value capital and debts - cash and investments
Enterprise Value = 100m shares * $37.50 per share + $1000m debts - $100m
= $3750 m + $1000 m - $100 m
= $4650 m
_______ is the arrangement of having discrete parts of a task done by different people. Multiple Choice A division of labor An employee structure A contingency approach A common purpose An organization chart
Answer:
a. dvision of labor
Explanation:
i hope this helps you!
"Two unrelated persons (Person A and Person B) come into your branch office to open a new account. They tell you that the funds are being deposited by Person A, who will be the owner of the account, and that Person B wants to be able to trade the account. They also tell you that only 1 social security number is to be used on the account. How should the account be opened?"
Answer: Individual account in the name of Person A with a Third Party Trading Authorization granted to Person B
Explanation:
An account that has two or more signatory is known as a joint account. When this account is opened, both parties or all signatory to the account will have to either be physically present or would provide details about about themselves to be used for opening of the account. The account is then opened and all signatory to the account can access and be informed about every detail about the account as there is no preference of one person over the other.
A company sells DVD players for $200 per unit. The players have a unit variable cost of $160. The company estimates that it will sell one home entertainment system for every four DVD players sold. Home entertainment systems have a unit variable cost of $460 and sell for $600 per unit. The company's fixed costs are $90,000. Assuming that the sales mix estimate is correct, how many DVD players need to be sold for the company to break even?
Answer:
Break-even point= 1,200 DVDs
Explanation:
First, we need to calculate the sales proportion:
DVD= 4/5= 0.8
Home entertainment= 1/5= 0.2
Now, we need to calculate the break-even point for the whole company:
Break-even point (units)= Total fixed costs / Weighted average contribution margin
Weighted average contribution margin= (weighted average selling price - weighted average unitary variable cost)
Weighted average contribution margin= (200*0.8 + 600*0.2) - (160*0.8 + 460*0.2)
Weighted average contribution margin= 60
Break-even point (units)= 90,000/60= 1,500
Finally, the number of DVDs:
DVD= 1,500*0.8= 1,200 DVDs
DVD players need to be sold for the company to break even point :
Formula :
Break-even point (units)= Total fixed costs / Weighted average contribution marginBreak-even point (units)= 90,000/60Break-even point (units)= 1,500
Therefore, the number of DVDs:
DVDs= Break-Even Point-Sales Proportion DVD= 1,500*0.8DVD= 1,200 DVDsWorking Notes :
Sales Proportion:DVD= 4/5= 0.8
Home entertainment= 1/5= 0.2
Weighted average contribution margin= (weighted average selling price - weighted average unitary variable cost)Weighted average contribution margin= (200*0.8 + 600*0.2) - (160*0.8 + 460*0.2) Weighted average contribution margin= 60
DVD players need to be sold for the company to break even is 1200DVDs.
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You are the manager who employs a participantive control approach. You have concluded that corrective action is necessary to improve customer satisfaction, but first you need to convince your employees that the problem exists. What kind of evidence do you think employees will find more compelling; quantitative measurements or anccdotes from your interactions with customers
Answer:
Quantitative measurements
Explanation:
A participative approach in management involves involving employees in decision making processes in the organization. This is a transparent approach that allows for effective communication between managers and employees.
In the above case, quantitative measurements will better convince employees because this would better provide an objective evidence to show that corrective actions work better in improving customer satisfaction. Anecdotes in comparison would merely be hearsay accounts and won't be taken seriously by employees
Kliting Co. has a lot of outstanding accounts receivable but customers are slow to pay, and it doesn't have sufficient cash to pay its suppliers and employees at the end of the month. Instead of borrowing money, Kliting decides to sell its accounts receivable. This form of financing is known as: Group of answer choices
Answer:
Factoring
Explanation:
Factoring is a form of debtor finance that involves an entity selling it's accounts receivables to a third party at a discount.
The third party is called a factor.
This practice is usually carried out to meet urgent cash needs of the business.
In this instance Kliting Co. has a lot of outstanding accounts receivables and there is need for cash to pay its suppliers and employees at the end of the month.
Instead of borrowing Kliting Co. sells their accounts receivables to get the needed cash.
This is factoring finance
With the emergence of smartphones, users no longer have to carry a separate music player, a video game, a laptop, or a magazine to keep themselves entertained when traveling. A smartphone is loaded with a variety of applications to satisfy all the customer needs that different industries or products individually satisfied earlier. As a result, the smartphone industry has been posing a threat to a lot of other unrelated industries. What is this phenomenon best known as
Answer: Industry Convergence
Explanation: Industry Convergence has been boosted by the increased leverage of science and technology to various industries which has seen many industries break from the traditional single market focus and transition in a more robust cross industry focus whereby industries can incorporate several individual product into its production plan thereby providing more value added product and services. Smartphone companies as described above have integrated several single market products such as radio, music player, gaming, internet connectivity, camera and video recording, flash light(torch) and so on. thereby creating a robust and cross-industry product which adds more value and products able to withstand competition.
The market value of Charcoal Corporation's common stock is $20 million, and the market value of its risk-free debt is $5 million. The beta of the company's common stock is 1.25, and the market risk premium is 8%. If the Treasury bill rate is 5%, what is the company's cost of capital
Answer:
The company's cost of capital will be "13%".
Explanation:
The given values are:
Risk free rate
= 5
Beta
= 1.25
Market risk premium
= 8
Now,
⇒ [tex]cost \ of \ common \ stock=Risk \ free \ rate+Beta\times Market \ risk \ premium[/tex]
On substituting the estimated values, we get
⇒ [tex]=5+(1.25\times 8)[/tex]
⇒ [tex]=15 \ percent[/tex]
The total value will be:
= [tex]20 +5[/tex]
= $[tex]25 \ million[/tex]
As we know,
⇒ [tex]WACC=Respective \ costs\times Respective \ weights[/tex]
⇒ [tex]=(\frac{20}{25}\times15)+(\frac{5}{25}\times 5)[/tex]
⇒ [tex]=12+1[/tex]
⇒ [tex]=13 \ percent[/tex]
Note: % = percent
The reserve requirement is 10%. Suppose that the Fed $ worth of U.S. government securities a bond dealer, electronically the dealer's deposit account at Reliable Bank. Which of the following correctly describes the immediate effect of this transaction? A. The total reserves of Reliable Bank by $. B. The excess reserves of Reliable Bank by $. C. The required reserves of Reliable Bank by $. D. Reliable Bank
Answer:
D. The money supply decreases by $150,000.
Explanation:
Note: This question is not complete as some figures are omitted. The full question is therefore presented first before answering the question as follows:
The reserve requirement is 10%.
Suppose that the Fed sells $150,000 worth of U.S. government securities from a bond dealer, electronically debiting the dealer's deposit account at Reliable Bank.
Which of the following correctly describes the immediate effect of this transaction on the money supply?
A. The money supply decreases by $1,500,000
B. The money supply decreases by $135,000.
C. There is no change in the money supply.
D. The money supply decreases by $150,000.
E. None of the above.
The explanation to the answer is now provided as follows:
This is an example of Open market operations (OMO).
Open market operations (OMO) is a monetary policy strategy in which the central bank such as the Federal Reserve sells or purchases government securities in order to implement a particular monetary policy.
When the central bank sells government securities on the open market, it aims to reduce the money supply by the worth of the securities. This is called a contractionary monetary policy.
On the other hand, when the central bank purchases government securities on the open market, it aims to increase the money supply by the worh of the government securities. This is called an expansionary monetary policy.
From the question, the sale of $150,000 worth of U.S. government securities from a bond dealer is a contractionary monetary policy and it will reduce the money supply by exactly $150,000.
Therefore, the correct option is D. The money supply decreases by $150,000.
grouper Company has an old factory machine that cost $50,750. The machine has accumulated depreciation of $28,420. Grouper has decided to sell the machine. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts.) (a) What entry would Grouper make to record the sale of the machine for $25,375 cash
Answer:
Accumulated depreciation $28,420 (debit)
Cash $25,375 (debit)
Profit and Loss $3,045 (credit)
Cost $50,750 (credit)
Explanation:
For any sale of an Item of Property, Plant and Equipment, the sale must be accounted as follows :
De-recognize the Accumulated depreciation on the AssetDe-recognize the Cost of the AssetRecognize the Proceeds of the SaleRecognize the Profit or Loss on Sale of the asset (In this case there was a profit)Mr. Green and Mr. Blue contract orally to transfer 500 widgets for $1,000. Mr. Blue sends Mr. Green a receipt one week after the agreement. If Mr. Green now refuses to recognize the agreement a court will find what
Answer:
That a memorandum of understanding was created by the receipt sent by Mr. Blue and an
enforceable agreement exists
Explanation:
A memorandum of understanding is an agreement between two or more parties stating a lone of action that is binding on the participants.
This is used in place of a legally enforceable agreement. Like a formal gentlemen's agreement.
In this instance they agree orally to transfer 500 widgets for $1,000. Mr. Blue sends Mr. Green a receipt one week after the agreement.
The act of sending a reciept establishes the fact that there is an agreement. Therefore it is enforceable in a court of law.
Attorney represented Baker in a claim involving a breach of Baker's employment contract. The case was settled without suit being filed. The proceeds of the settlement were paid directly to Baker~ who subsequently paid Attorney in full for Attorney's fee and expenses. Thereafter, Attorney did no other work for Baker. Baker is now being audited by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The IRS has asked Attorney for details of the settlement, including the amount claimed for each item of damage and the amounts paid for the items. Attorney reported the request to Baker who told Attorney not to provide the information to the IRS. Is it proper for Attorney to furnish the information to the IRS
Answer:
It is proper for the attorney to furnish the information to the IRS in-order to do a suitable audit on Baker on the tax which he or she is eligible to pay for. Withholding such information would amount to preventing them from doing a detailed job which on the long run would amount to filing false tax claim by Baker.
Explanation:
A third party can increase the supply chain surplus by aggregating demand across multiple firms and gaining production economies of scale that no single firm can on its own. This is called Group of answer choices
Answer: Capacity aggregation
Explanation:
Capacity aggregation is the planning and management of the entire capacity of the resources of an organization.
Capacity aggregation is when a third party can increase the supply chain surplus by aggregating demand across multiple firms and gaining production economies of scale that no single firm can on its own.
